Political Socialization is a process. The process is a continuous one.
It is a process to modify attitudes.
Attitudes are modified with new social experiences. Agents of political socialization.
Meaning of Political Socialization
Socialization is a process by which an individual gets inducted into the society with all its diversities. Every society has its own set of values and a unique, separate identity. The individual has to get assimilated into the system so that one can be a part of the system, sometimes being moulded and at other times, changing the system. Socialization is a continuous process in the life of an individual. Change is inevitable in every society as also in the political system. The challenge of every political system is how to imbibe these changes into its individuals while maintaining consistency and continuity. The process of political socialization is a part of general socialization.
Structures of a political system are the same everywhere but they operate differently across countries. The explanation of this diversification is that individuals develop different attitudes and orientations. The term ‘political socialization’ is the process by which individuals acquire political attitudes. People in different countries acquire different orientations because their experiences with the political system are different. Every individual has certain beliefs about the political system. The question is how to accommodate these diverse beliefs to have some kind of agreement to run the political system effectively. This is where the role of political socialization comes in. One of the key concepts of contemporary political analysis is political socialization which deals with orientations of individuals towards the political system and its objects.
This concept becomes all the more important in developing countries where there is diversity of language, culture, religion, region, class, caste besides economic differences. These sub-cultural differences are obstacles in the way of effective national identity. The resolution of these differences is necessary to reach at some kind of agreement about the role of government in the society, the legitimate goals of policies and the extent of participation. This goal to have an effective political system is realised by a psychological concept, political socialization. Lucian Pye defines political culture as a process by which attitudes and beliefs that give order and meaning to the political process. To build up the political culture of a political system, political socialization plays a vital role.
Political socialization is the process by which individuals are inducted into the political system. It explains the process by which the members of a society acquire political attitudes and behaviour patterns about the political system, where they are living. It is also a process by which society transmits political orientations to the next generation as well as to newcomers (especially in these times of migration – both national as well as international). Thus, as Ashraf Ali Sharma says it is an important means of inter-generational and inter-continental transmission of culture. This helps the society to transfer values from one generation to another. The latter can modify it according to its own experiences and the changing circumstances. Ashraf Ali Sharma further says that this process helps societies to achieve cohesion through a shared understanding of values, norms and symbols.
There are others who stress the conservative, pattern-maintaining function which is achieved by political socialization. This section believes that gradual transformation saves the political system from sudden changes. The political system might not be able to adjust to the latter. There are others who stress the development, growth and changes of individual political orientations. They believe in political socialization as a learning process rather than a teaching process. In short, political socialization is a part of the general socialization by which children, newcomers and the untutored young are inducted into the political system of the country. Attitudes are acquired which are modified through personal, social experiences.
Forms of Political Socialization
Political socialization is of two types – (a) Manifest Political Socialization, (b) Latent Political Socialization.
(a) Manifest Political Socialization can be explained when there is explicit communication of values, information or feelings towards political objects or the political systems. It involves imitation of the political orientations and behaviour of others. In simple words, political socialization is manifest when certain beliefs or feelings towards the political system are put into the minds of others directly and in clear terms. Good examples are when students are taught about the merits of democracy in schools in countries following western type of democracy. Similarly, in the Defunct – USSR, children were taught about the Communist Party being the only vehicle of positive change in the society. In the erstwhile Soviet Union, the compulsory courses of Marxism-Leninism are examples of manifest political socialization. Lectures, use of mass media, formal education in educational institutions are ways of bringing about political stability or for maintaining status-quo. These can also be used for bringing about gradual political change. In today’s world Internet is one of the most effective ways of manifest political socialization. Personal experiences like the struggle of Palestinians in Israel, the terrorist activities in Punjab in the late 1980’s , the attack on World Trade Centre in September 11, 2009, the Mumbai blasts in the recent past etc. are all examples of manifest political socialization. What role one desires to play in the system helps one acquire certain traits that become a part of manifest political socialization.
(b) Latent Political Socialization: It is the transmission of non-political attitudes which affect the orientation of people towards the political system. It is an unconscious process. This works automatically and might even go unnoticed but can be equally effective as manifest political socialization. As Almond and Powell states that it involves many of the most fundamental characteristics of the general culture which may in turn have great effect on the political sphere. Its impact on the political system can be seen gradually. The process includes personal experiences which might not be expressed, but nevertheless would have an impact. For example, joining some organisation which has some affiliation or ideology, the family’s leanings for a political party and the subsequent discussions over dinners, the voting behaviour of the elders in the family etc
Political Socialization is the means by which political culture can be changed, sustained or slightly modified. Political socialization can be manipulated by the leadership if it wants a change in the political culture. Sometimes, the leadership might have vested interests but at other times, it might not really find the political culture healthy or conducive to the growth of the Nation. We have the example of the Communist Regimes in different countries which used political socialization to change political culture across Continents.
Besides manifest and latent political socialization, we have the specific political socialization in which specific values and beliefs are imparted. The Communist Parry in the defunct USSR, present China is examples. In particularistic socialization, an individual is taught only one role. The examples of the role of the old and the young in the tribes are explanatory. Even Plato indirectly talked about this socialization by advocating an education system where people would be sent to jobs best suited to their capability. Contrary to this is the universalistic socialization in which a cosmopolitan outlook is developed. The individual is encouraged to imbibe several roles and skills. Affective socialization is used by all regimes to stress on loyalty for the political system and its leadership. Instrumental socialization is pragmatic because its emphasis is on bargaining and deriving the maximum benefit from the political system. It believes in calculating strategies to benefit from the system. Political socialization has different stages. First, the individual gets absorbed in the general culture and then in the political culture of the country. Childhood is the first stage when the informal factors work on the children and influence them. As the children grow, the educational institutions exert their influence on their thoughts and behaviour regarding their environment, especially the political environment. As the citizens look for employment, other factors like job availability, the employer- employee relationship and the political system’s role , all add to the moulding of the former’s participation in the political system.
Stages of Political Socialization
There are different stages in the lives of the citizens when they are influenced by various factors, both external and internal.
1. Early childhood- Children are more of observers than participants in the initial years of their growing . They absorb from their surroundings and imbibe whatever is doled out to them .And that sets the foundation for a lifetime. The children at this stage learn maximum from their immediate family members. If the family is very active in the political sphere then the children of the family also have a natural inclination towards politics. Their interest in politics stems from their roots- their families. They imbibe values as are practiced around them. Their bent towards the political system is but natural for it is talked about more often. On the other hand, if some families talk negatively about the political activities in a political system then the children growing in such families might have a natural disdain towards the latter.
2. Late Childhood or Teenage- This is the time when the children’s thoughts as well as their notions can change. They become more aware about their rights, their life and their future. They might also realize that the political system is the source for giving them a good life. So, some, who were earlier indifferent about the political system might start taking interest in the political going on. They would start participating in the political system or at least start pondering about the various decisions taken by the political system. They would not only be interested in the decisions taken but also in the process of decision making. This stage decides the extent of future participation of the individual.
3. Adulthood- This is the stage when the individual becomes a citizen with firm views and beliefs. The process of political socialization continues and the individual might change a little bit , but his/her biases and decisions are clear.As individuals move ahead in life and have personal experiences with the political system they decide their participation. The employment opportunities, the chances to fulfill their aspirations and finally the extent to which their goals are fulfilled decide the individuals’ orientations. The process is political socialization and it moulds the adult citizens thoughts towards the political system.
Agents of Political Socialization
There are many agents through which the individual is influenced. As mentioned earlier, political socialization is a psychological concept. It is all about reaching and influencing the individual’s minds. There are certain formal structures that perform this function. Besides the formal structures, there are many informal structures which influence the people. These influences start from the child’s family and act continuously throughout one’s life. Each agent has a different but significant affect on the individual. The various agents are as follows –
(i) Family – Family is the first foremost influence on the child. It directly and indirectly influences the child not only about the values in the society but also about the political system. It plays a key role in forming and moulding the personality of any individual. Family forms the most impressionable age of an individual. Its influence is unparalleled, thus, it plays a crucial role in the process of political socialization. It is the family that transmits values to the children because it is the first formal structure that an individual is introduced to and the influences of the family are long lasting. The child’s orientation towards obedience, hierarchy, and respect for rules decide his future role as a citizen. If the child is encouraged to participate in decisions within the family, the child takes the decision–making process seriously. If the decisions in the family are taken only by the parents or elders, the child sees authority and non-participation at a very early age. Both these cases would definitely teach the child lessons in political socialization. In a democracy, children learn about ‘liberty’, ‘equality’, ‘justice’, at a comparatively younger age. They have a different perspective than their counterparts in a totalitarian regime. In the latter the parents’ authority is challenged by the political regime, which is considered larger than the life of the individual. Even within a family in the developing or traditional societies, the socialization is different of the girls than from that of the boys. The boys are encouraged to participate while the girls are taught about the traditional rules and discouraged to participate in politics. The child first encounters authority and obedience in the family. The individual’s participation, sense of political competence, political sanctions help one to identify one’s role in the political system. The family’s role may seem to diminish for sometime as the child moves ahead in life and is exposed to more influences but the under-currents are always there when an individual steps ahead for bigger, effective roles. Family is the primary socializing agent.
(ii) School and other educational Institutions
Educational institutions, especially the School are the second most powerful agent of political socialization. As the child steps out from the family into the school the process of socialization and political socialization accelerates. If in the family latent political socialization was the political socialization that was being transmitted, in the school along with latent political socialization, manifest political socialization transmits political knowledge and opinion. Schools, colleges and universities play an important role in shaping attitudes and orientations about the political system. In these educational institutions, the child learns one’s first lessons about participation, sense of competence and aspirations. The school transmits values and beliefs through its curriculum and also by debates and discussions on different issues. The endeavour of these educational institutions is to help evolve good citizens. For this the morning assembly, the singing of the national anthem/song, the pledges to honour one’s country, salute to the national flag etc. are points that help the children grow into responsible, law abiding citizens. The rigorous schedule of studies, the exams, the extra-curricular activities encourages the child for healthy competition. The various educational institutions which the child attends inculcate the values of public duty and political relations among the individuals. Even Plato and Aristotle emphasised the importance of education to churn out good citizens. Education not only imparts knowledge about the political system but also help the young, virgin minds to develop positive feelings towards the system. Education helps in assimilation of people torn apart because of diverse factors like religion, region, colour, language and sex. Thus, there are governments that try to control and change a generation through the educational system. The knowledge, thus imparted, is regimented and controlled towards a particular direction. The course-content, in such systems, is manipulated. This happens in totalitarian regimes where the government does not want to take criticism or challenges from its citizens.
(iii) Peer Groups
As the child grows, friends and their ideological orientations start playing a greater role in the child’s life. The common age group besides the common aspirations and frustrations bind peers together. Peer groups play a greater role in countries where family ties are loose. These groups initially work with the educational institutions but then continue working outside the educational institution. This group plays an important role in shaping values and attitudes. Also called reference groups they can encourage or discourage participation. Friends determine the kind and level of participation. They can mould an individual’s perception about the political system. As the individual graduates from the educational institutions and steps into the society and the political system these peer groups continue to play a greater role. If one is guided by the peer group which wants to actively participate in the system, the individual would also believe in participation leading to greater political competence. The individual, alongwith one’s peer group would follow the actions of the leadership, criticise or appreciate and thus, keep the political system on its toes. An active peer-group would ask questions, protest or suggest whatever would be the demand of the situation. This peer-group would play the role of an alert group, keeping a vigil on the political system. The latter would be wary of such groups and view them as potential leaders of the future. Association with such a peer-group would definitely influence the various members of this group.
(iv) Mass Media
The Media has always been an important means of articulation of ideas. The Media, in modern times, includes the print media as well as the T.V. channels and the radio. The latest addition is the Internet which is used the maximum by the present generation to exchange and assimilate ideas. It is their window to the ‘global village’. It helps them to connect with citizens of varied political systems. Thus, the present generation is in a better position to compare, deliberate, appreciate, discuss and criticise. In the present scenario, mass media is an effective tool of political socialization. The editorial columns, the views by experts, the TV channel debates all help in political socialization. It is the media which can change a simple event into an emotive one. The media provides information about the various political events. At times, they have effect in the short-run but their impact can be felt in the long-run. Much depends on the media and to what side it is aligned. Manipulation of media can distort facts and can dole out wrong information to the citizens. History of a Nation can change because of the facts reported by the media. In totalitarian regimes, the control on the mass-media by the government is complete. In such political systems, people’s attitudes and orientations towards the political system are changed with the help of mass-media. The latter is used as a support structure to emphasise the legality of the system. In developing countries the exposure of people to the mass-media is general while in the developed countries it is selective and specialised.
(v) Direct contact with the Political System
The individual’s personal experiences with the political system shape one’s attitudes. A good experience with the political system helps one develop positive orientations towards the political system. Negative experiences mar an individual’s attitudes towards the political system. Unemployment, harassment by the government, obstacles in simple chores like getting a passport, driving license, gas connection etc. make the individual develop disdain or indifference towards the political system. The individual then prefers to migrate to some developed country. This explains the increasing international migration. The individual’s direct interaction with the police, judiciary, political leaders, all lead to forming and moulding of one’s political orientations.
(vi) Religion
In developing as well as in developed countries, religion plays an important role in political affiliations. Religion can be a binding as well as a divisive force. It can bind people of one religion but divide a state. Peoples, at times, vote according to their religion. They join political parties propagating a specific religion. Children imbibe values through informal conversations within a family. The individual, it is generally seen, initially orients towards parties to which their parents affiliate. Subsequently, they might change their affiliation because of different influences. Religion also helps people distance themselves from particular religious groups. The role of the Church in some Western countries is an example. In developing countries like India, the role of Shiv Sena, Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) and Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) are examples of religion playing an important role as an agent of political socialization.
(vii)Caste
Caste is an important agent of political socialization in developing countries. It is a divisive agent whose negative role cannot be undermined. People of a particular caste group bond together, at times, to derive gains from the political system. The tactics used are, usually, negative. Its role as a vote-bank to gain maximum mileage leads to formation of combinations which are not healthy for the political system in the long-run. The younger generation learns about these negative influences and how it can be used to gain benefits. This agent of political socialization is not healthy and constructive and is used by political parties to divide people.
(viii)Symbols of the Political System
The Constitution, the National Flag, the National Anthem all lead to manifestation of the legality of the political system. These symbols help the individual develop respect for the political system. Each time the individual sings the national anthem or the national song, a sense of loyalty and pride is instilled in one’s mind. These symbols reinforce the authority of political system. The symbols combine within them legal as well as emotional bonding of the individual with the political system. In India, the Republic Day Parade, the address by the President to the Nation is examples of instilling pride in the minds of the citizens of the country. These symbols also serve as a connection between the past and the present of any Nation.
Conclusion
Political socialization is a very powerful tool to mould political cultures. The various agents of political socialization can even help create an entirely new set of values and attitudes. Its importance is growing in today’s world where the traditional structures of a village or tribal community are breaking down. As the world shrinks, political systems are borrowing more from each other. The citizens learn as they move ahead in life. Any event, be it in the social, religious, and economic sphere can influence the political system of a state. Thus, political socialization has to be healthy and positive. It can be moulded in the totalitarian regimes as well as in the developing countries. In the former it is controlled while in the latter it is general and diffused. Both situations are dangerous and need to be handled carefully by the few eternal, vigilant citizens within the political system.
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